A NEW OVERSEAS TERRITORY
THE ARRIVAL OF THE HMS HIMALAYA
AN ESSENTIAL TROOP SHIP
Originally built for the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, the HMS HIMALAYA was a 3,438 gross register ton iron steam crew passenger ship. The Shanghai-class cruiser then became a steam cruiser for the British Royal Navy after they purchased the vessel in 1854. It went on to serve as a troop ship for the British Navy for four decades. The vessel supported operations during the ‘Second Opium War’ and carried troops all over the British Empire of the time. This included India, South Africa, the Gold Coast, and North America.
JULY 22ND 1878
The HMS HIMALAYA took on a significant new role in the Eastern Mediterranean on the morning of July 22nd, 1878. Though largely uneventful, the story of the ship’s arrival into the port of Larnaca remains poignant. This is when Cyprus became an unofficial overseas territory of Great Britain. Marking the beginning of a new era in the history of Cyprus, this largely tumultuous rule would last the best part of 82 years.
THE BEGINNING OF BRITISH RULE
The British troop carrier was docked in the port of Larnaca after bringing the new British colonial administration to take control of the island after the signing of the Treaty of Berlin. The new administration was made up of several British dignitaries, who had accompanied the new governor and first High Commissioner of Cyprus, Lieutenant-General Sir Garnet Joseph Wolseley, on the journey. The latter, who was tasked with establishing a new functioning government on the island, was not initially impressed with what he had found. Although his journey was described as a calm and pleasant voyage, things did not start well after his arrival. The new British governor later described Larnaca as a filthy pest house of dirt and fever.
A DISASTROUS END
The HMS HIMALAYA continued its troop duties until its retirement in 1894. It was then repurposed as a coal hulk after this. It was eventually sunk during World War I after an enemy air attack. The British Empire would go on to rule Cyprus until conditional independence was granted in the summer of 1960.
THE TREATY OF BERLIN
British rule over Cyprus was secured after the ‘Treaty of Berlin’ was agreed upon and signed on July 13th, 1878. It was the final act of the Congress of Berlin, where the major European powers, which included Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, and the Ottoman Turks, agreed to rearrange the Balkan territories. This was done to limit Russian influence following the previous Treaty of San Stefano. The new agreement not only ceded Cyprus to the British but also recognised the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania. It also placed Bosnia-Herzegovina under direct Austro-Hungarian control. This treaty also gave the Ottomans British assurances that they would help repel any further Russian expansion into Ottoman territories. The British would go on to use Cyprus as a strategic naval and military base. The island also later became instrumental in protecting British interests in the Suez Canal.
AN UNCONVENTIONAL LEASE AGREEMENT
This agreement, which saw Great Britain take control of Cyprus using an unconventional lease agreement from the Ottoman Empire, stipulated that, although the Ottoman Empire would retain ownership of the island, it would cede full control to the British Empire in exchange for diplomatic and military support. This event marked a poignant new era for the island and brought Cyprus firmly into the 20th century.
A WAVE OF CHANGE
Although initially suffering, the island would eventually experience several positive changes under the stewardship of Great Britain. Administrators oversaw modernisation, and the island as a whole benefited from several new infrastructure projects. The British constructed several new roads, and they would eventually introduce a NEW RAILWAY. This mainly served the north and the port of Famagusta in the east of the island. They also introduced new structures of governance and law that brought several advantages that were new to everyday Cypriots. As time wore on, excessive taxes and a yearning for self-determination eventually led to severe political upheaval. This all came to a head when the majority of Greek Cypriots openly called for ‘Enosis’, which was a union with Greece. On APRIL 1ST, 1955, the military wing of this movement, EOKA, began hostilities against all British installations and institutions across the island, after Britain continually and strongly expressed opposition to this. Cyprus would eventually gain independence during the summer of 1960 after a struggle which lasted for the best part of 5 years.
BRITISH DIPLOMACY AT ITS HIGHEST LEVEL
THE SECRET CYPRUS CONVENTION OF 1878
The Suez Canal, which had opened less than a decade earlier in 1869, made the Eastern Mediterranean vital for sea-borne traffic to British India. Initial British intentions at the time were to allow Cyprus to serve as a key naval and military outpost to safeguard these trade routes and to monitor Russian movements. In light of this, Vice Admiral Lord John Hay, along with several other British dignitaries, landed in Larnaca on July 22nd, 1878. This came after the signing of an agreement between the British and Ottoman Empires, which created the secret Cyprus Convention on June 4th. Under this agreement, Sultan Abdul Hamid II ceded the administration and occupation of the island to Great Britain in exchange for military and diplomatic support. This helped to defend a much-weakening Ottoman Empire against potential Russian aggression.
A SMALL CEREMONY
Bringing an end to over 300 years of direct Ottoman rule on the island, the first High Commissioner, Lieutenant-General Sir Garnet Joseph Wolseley, witnessed the raising of the Union Jack in Larnaca shortly after his arrival on July 22nd, 1878. The High Commissioner immediately issued a new proclamation promising the local population prosperity, justice, and security. He did this during the small ceremony that also saw the Bishop of Kition explicitly voice this hope for the island’s eventual union with Greece.
A UNIQUE ARRANGEMENT
Although Ottoman sovereignty was still in place in Cyprus and its people continued to be legally regarded as Ottoman subjects, the unique arrangement allowed Britain to assume full administrative and military control. This allowed the island the benefits of a British protectorate. The unique arrangement remained in place until Britain formally annexed the island in 1914. This came after the Ottomans entered World War I against the Allies.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS
Completely contrasting expectations from the two main communities on the island were also triggered by the arrival of the British. The majority Greek population initially welcomed them with great enthusiasm. This was born from the fact that they had handed the Ionian Islands back to Greece in 1864. With this in mind, the Greek Cypriots naively believed that British rule would be a stepping stone toward the island’s unification with Greece. The Turkish minority, however, who had previously been part of the ruling Ottoman class, initially viewed the British with deep apprehension and anxiety. This is because they suddenly found themselves transformed from a dominant community into a minority under a new Christian-based colonial power.
AN INITIAL DISASTER!
A DARK SHADOW
Although the acquisition of Cyprus would eventually prove highly strategic, a dark shadow initially cast doubt over the strategic value of the occupation. The reality of the takeover quickly devolved into an embarrassing series of public relations disasters. This was mainly fuelled by a series of public health disasters and several economic difficulties. This led the British press at the time to brand the acquisition of Cyprus a poorly planned blunder born of gutter politics.
THE COST TO BRITISH TROOPS
The British high command, it seems, was completely ignorant of the island’s topography and climate. The most immediate and high-profile disaster, because of this, was the devastating toll that disease took on the newly arrived British troops. Clad in heavy woollen uniforms, entirely unsuited for the Mediterranean climate, several soldiers would die of heat stroke before they could finish their march to their new stations. Malaria and dysentery then tore through their ranks, devastating roughly 25% of the entire force. This came after British command deployed troops to low-lying, marshy camps during the height of summer. The image of hundreds of sick soldiers languishing in makeshift hospital tents became a massive scandal in London at the time.
THE COST TO THE CYPRIOT ECONOMY
Instead of bringing immediate economic prosperity, the financial framework of the acquisition crippled the local Cypriot economy from the start. Under the terms of the convention, Britain agreed to pay the Ottoman Sultan an annual lease fee, which became known as the Cyprus Tribute. Rather than funding this out of the British Treasury, the colonial administration extracted quite a substantial sum directly from local Cypriot taxes. Because nearly all local revenues were siphoned off to pay the tribute and defaulting Ottoman bonds held by British investors, there was virtually no money left to build any basic civic infrastructure. The island was left impoverished, and the promised economic resuscitation failed to materialise for decades.
A STRATEGIC WHITE ELEPHANT
Cyprus was acquired under the assumption that it would serve as a formidable naval station to protect British trade routes. This, however, quickly proved to be a geographical miscalculation. The ongoing financial drain of the Ottoman tribute meant that plans to build a major naval base were indefinitely shelved. The British soon realised that the island lacked a single natural deepwater port capable of hosting the Royal Navy’s modern ironclad fleet. The harbour at Famagusta was then chosen to create one, but as it was heavily silted, it required an astronomical investment to dredge and modernise. Rather than a vital strategic shield, Cyprus became what historians called an inconsequential possession, leading the British press to eventually dub the acquisition of the island a strategic white elephant.
A DISORGANISED ADMINISTRATION
The transition from Ottoman to British administration was also highly disorganised and was initially bounced between the control of the Foreign Office and the Colonial Office. A prime example of early systemic mismanagement was the state of the institutional facilities. During this often chaotic transition, the island’s Leper colony fell into total neglect. Starving, often desperate patients would escape the facility to roam nearby villages, forcing the British administration to scramble to implement containment measures. While the Ottomans had successfully brought a devastating plague of agricultural locusts under control by 1870, British administrative shortcomings allowed this locust population to resurface and explode again by 1885, leaving the majority of the Cypriot rural community devastated. A new deep-seated local resentment of the British set in as locusts ravaged their precious crops.
SEWING THE SEEDS OF ANTI-COLONIAL INSURGENCY
The British also completely misjudged the political desires of the island’s population. On the very day the first High Commissioner, Sir Garnet Wolseley, landed in Larnaca, he was met by the Greek Orthodox Bishop of Kition, who, instead of pledging submission to the British Empire, publicly demanded a unification of Cyprus with Greece. The British chose a policy that simply ignored these nationalistic aspirations and suppressed local civic institutions. This laid the groundwork for severe political instability that culminated decades later in the violent anti-colonial insurgencies of the mid-20th century.
