A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
A RICH COMPLEX HISTORY
Cyprus has a rich and complex history, shaped by various cultures, empires, and geopolitical events, but one of its most poignant times was when it became a British overseas colony. The island gained this accolade in 1878 and the British Empire’s reign lasted until the island gained independence in 1960. This was a significant period in the island’s history. It influenced its political, social, and economic landscape, with the British modernising and bringing the island firmly into the 20th century.
A STRATEGIC TERRITORY
Before the arrival of British rule, Cyprus experienced a succession of rulers, the latter of which included the Republic of Venice, and then the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans were very powerful when they prised the island away from the Republic of Venice in 1571, however, by the time the British took control in 1878, they saw a steep decline and were losing a brutal war against Russia. The strategic location of Cyprus was crucial for British interests, particularly for trade routes and military operations in the region and Great Britain at the time, was at the forefront of European powers that were jostling for influence over global strategic territories. Cyprus in particular, offered an attractive solution for the protection of its interests in the Suez Canal and the Ottoman’s eventually came to an agreement with the British that offered an ad-hoc lease agreement for the island in exchange for political support against the Russia in 1878. The British, however, formally annexed Cyprus in 1914, when they found themselves on opposing sides to Turkey in World War I, declaring the island from that point on a British Crown Colony.
BRITISH GOVERNANCE
Initially, British governance took the form of a system of indirect rule, allowing local leaders to maintain some authority under British oversight. This initially worked well, but Cypriot influence slowly began to eradicate when the British appointed a High Commissioner to oversee all administration and local governance. Although still managed through a council that included both British and local representatives, British officials were largely taking decisions, meaning that very few Cypriots gained a genuine voice in administrative affairs. This resulted in the political disenfranchisement of the local population and the repercussions of the power imbalance would later fuel growing discontent and eventually lead to calls for self-governance. The British administration also went on to introduce significant changes to the political structure of Cyprus and one of the most notable was the dismantling of the Ottoman legal system. A new legal system based on English Common Law, was introduced and the education system was also restructured, establishing schools that provided English language instruction.
A CHANGING ECONOMIC LANDSCAPE
British rule also brought changes and many challenges to the economic landscape of Cyprus. On one hand, the British introduced infrastructure projects that improved transportation, communication, and public health. Roads, railways, and port facilities were developed to facilitate trade and military movement, enhancing the overall economic potential of the island. On the other hand, however the socio-economic conditions for the majority of the population, particularly the rural peasants, remained challenging. Agriculture was the primary economic activity in Cyprus at the time, with the cultivation of crops such as
cotton, tobacco, and most cereals. The British introduced and promoted certain cash crops, which had significant implications for local farmers. While some benefitted from these changes, many faced financial hardships due to fluctuating market prices and exploitative practices. Land ownership issues also persisted, and British policies often favoured the interests of foreign companies. The eventual introduction of taxes and land reforms increased tensions between British Authorities and the local populace.
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM & RESISTANCE
As the 20th century approached, various factors contributed to the rise of nationalism in Cyprus. The discontent arising from often harsh British policies, the desire for political representation, and the influence of nationalist movements in other parts of the world created an environment ripe for resistance. The two major ethnic communities on the island, Greek and Turkish Cypriots had differing aspirations, which further complicated the political landscape.
THE GREEK CYPRIOTS
Greek Cypriots, fuelled by historical ties and cultural affiliations to Greece, predominantly aspired for union with a country that many thought of as their motherland and a new movement advocating this rose and became known as ‘Enosis’. The desire for ‘Enosis’ was also articulated by several nationalist leaders and political organisations of the time. The highly influential ‘Pan-Cyprian Union’, which sought political reform and greater autonomy for the island eventually adopted the ‘Enosis’ movement and this marked a pivotal moment in Cypriot history, eventually galvanising public support for the island’s independence.
THE TURKISH CYPRIOTS
Turkish Cypriots on the other hand, were hugely opposed to ‘Enosis’ and fostered their own sense of identity, developing differing aspirations to their Greek counterparts. Turkish Cypriot leaders predominantly advocated for partition, which became known as ‘Taksim’ as a response to perceived threats to their rights and existence on the island. This resulted in deepening divisions between the two communities and made it increasingly difficult for a unified nationalist movement to emerge.
REPRESSION & HOSTILITY
Nationalist sentiments led to several clashes between Cypriots and British Authorities and in 1931, significant riots erupted in response to a British refusal to negotiate on ‘Enosis’. This destroyed the British governor’s residence in Nicosia. The British responded by dismissing the local administration and instituting a policy of martial law, leading to repression and hostility. This further entrenched the grievances of the Cypriot population that existed on the island until the outbreak of World War II.
WORLD WAR II
All hostilities ended with the outbreak of World War II and both Greek and Turkish Cypriots came together to form the Cypriot Volunteer Regiment. The regiment, which was originally formed as an island-wide defensive unit eventually joined colonial troops in several theatres of war proudly fighting a common enemy in the Middle East and North Africa.
THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE
Post-World War II saw a resurgence of nationalist sentiments across the globe, and Cyprus was no exception. The aftermath of the war and changing geopolitical realities motivated both the Greek and Turkish Cypriots to intensify their demands for self-determination. The Greek Cypriots pursued ‘Enosis’, whilst the Turkish Cypriots further explored the possibility of ‘Taksim’. In 1955 after multiple talks broke down yet again, the National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters, which became known as ‘EOKA’, began a guerrilla campaign of war dedicated to achieving ‘Enosis’. This marked a stark turning point in the struggle against British rule, escalating tensions and violence on the island.
A FIGHT FOR FREEDOM
‘EOKA’ led by General George Grivas, went on to conduct a campaign of violence and sabotage against most British installations on the island and in response to the escalation of violence, the British intensified their military presence and enacted draconian measures to suppress dissent. The escalation however proved untenable, and the British began to reconsider their position on Cypriot self-determination. This led to prolonged negotiations with Greek and Turkish representatives, and in 1959 alongside international pressure, the British government eventually set in motion the process for an independent Cyprus.
INDEPENDENCE DAY
After years of conflict and mounting pressure for a solution, Cyprus gained independence on August 16th, 1960. The Zurich and London Agreements established a new constitution, creating a bi-communal state that aimed to balance the interests of both Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Arch Bishop Makarios III became the first President of Cyprus, while Dr. Fazıl Küçük took on the role of Vice President.
A COMPLEX & TRANSFORMATIVE ERA
The legacy of the turbulent British period continues to resonate in Cypriot society, and its implications are still widely felt to this day. as both Cypriot communities navigate the challenges of co-existence and peace. British rule in Cyprus was a complex and transformative era that laid the foundation for the island’s future. While British governance introduced various administrative and economic advantages, it also fuelled nationalist sentiments, which often deepened divisions between Cypriot communities. The unresolved issues surrounding independence would continue to affect Cypriot society and laid the groundwork for future conflicts. Understanding this historical context is vital for appreciating the current socio-political landscape in Cyprus and the ongoing struggle for a lasting reconciliation between Greek and Turkish Cypriots.
